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Ulm-ul-Qur’an An Introduction to the Science of the Qur’an
(How to Study and Understand the Quran) By:
Dr.
Hasanuddin Ahmed, I.A.S.
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CHAPTER
- 2
ILMU KHATTIL QUR’AN SCRIPT OF THE
QUR`AN
The Arabic script in
which the Qur`an is written is universally accepted as the most beautiful
script. It was the respectful
devotion of Muslim calligraphists spread over centuries that produced the
remarkable results. As Muslims are forbidden from drawing pictures of living
beings, the Muslim artists have given expression to their talent in the field
of calligraphy and produced masterpieces. In this field also there were
several restrictions. It was necessary
for them to retain the special requirements of the Qur`anic script. Muslims consider it necessary to retain
intact the mode of the Qur`anic script used during Prophet's time with the
main purpose of preservation of the text of the Qur`an, Therefore, a separate
discipline known as `rusoom ul Qur`an’ was
introduced which discusses the principles of writing and printing which have
to be followed. The word 'script' denotes the system of written characters or
style of hand‑writing. It is
mode of expression and communication for protection of thoughts and events
according to the settled principles.
Every living language has got a capacity of absorbing new words into
it. Therefore, a change in the mode
of script also is an indication of its stability and progress. In case of Qur`anic script, every minute
detail of it has been faithfully preserved according to the instructions of
Prophet Muhammad (S) while the improvements in the Arabic language have also
been adopted in the Qur`anic script to the extent possible. The Qur`an was revealed in
Arabic language and written in Arabic Script but the Qur`anic Script has got
its own individuality and peculiarity the details of which would be furnished
in the following pages. Presently the
origin and evolution of the Arabic Script will be discussed. In the beginning, things,
deeds and attributes were expressed in the form of different figures with the
help of which man used to transcribe his thought on the tablets. According to this system, several hundred
figures were determined and it was necessary for the scribe to remember all
these figures to write and for readers to read. The earliest script that
prevailed in Iraq was called, 'Cuneiform Script' in which six hundred figures
were used. The task of remembering
all these figures was very difficult and this was the reason that the art of
script was restricted to few religious classes, and was considered as their
monopoly. Thereafter an improvement was made to use symbols and then letters
to represent sounds. On the eastern side of the island of Sina between Iran and
Egypt, there lived a branch of Arabic race.
In 3000 B.C. it determined
about twenty two different symbols or alphabets. This is how the first ever systematic written script came into
existence, in which letters were used in place of figures. The invention of letters made writing easy
and popular. Around twenty sounds
used by a man to communicate his feelings, emotions, desires and experiences,
were now given a particular symbol (for each and every sound) and thus the
language was given a new system of writing.
Later the inhabitants of
Saba created six more letters to write their language in Aramaic script and
gave shape to these letters which resembled Aramaic letters. In Arabic, these letters are called rawadif. Thus the Script adopted to write 'humairi'
language contained 28 letters and the script was called 'masnad'. It is difficult to state as to how for the
first time, the idea of differentiating Arabic script from 'humairi' script
'masnad' was born as it was revolutionary step to open new avenues of
progress in the making of the 'masnad' a universal script. The letters in 'masnad' script were
written separately and were not joined together. Those who knew writing in 'humairi' closed the doors of
learning to others. Nobody could
teach this script to others without the permission of the Humairists.
Therefore, literacy was very restricted in the whole of Yemen at the time of
dawn of Islam. The next revolutionary
step was taken by the Nabti nation. 'Inbetat' is situated in the north
of Hijaz. This nation exercised
sovereignty in the fourth century B.C.
but was overthrown by the Roman Emperor, in the year 106 B.C. This nation initiated for
the first time, the practice of writing by joining the letters together. They used few letters as a mausul
(which join with the letters that follow) and others as gair mausul
(which do not join with the letter that follow) and thus added a new mark 'hamza'
and the letters (س) and (ش) were made identical.
This script was called 'nabti' In the year, 120 A.D.,
the irrigation dam of Yemen was breached and many tribes migrated to northern
Arabia and established several small states therein. Al Ghassan took up the reigns of
governance in Syria and made Basra as its capital. Al‑Manazir Tanuhi established his government in
Iraq. Arabic language was used
in Basra and Heera (Present Kufa) and Arabic script was used. Thus the Arabic script developed further
due to mutual affinity between Basra and Heera. Heera was an ancient and popular city of Arabian part of Iraq
where the trade and academic activities were in their full swing. In addition to other scripts, the 'satranjeli'
script was also in use here which was a kind of Syrianic. Syrians used to write their religious
books in this script and 'nabti' script was used in general
correspondence. Kufis invented and
introduced a new script from the 'satranjeli' script. Before the revelation of
the Qur`an there were in use different scripts in Arabia and Arabic language
was also written in different forms of script. There were three tribes in Yemen, namely Humeer, Moin and Saba
and the masnad script was used, in which letters were separately
written. Thus Nabti script in
north, Iraqi script in Iraq and Syria and Syrian script in Arabia was in use. Arabs did not know the
art of writing till about a century before the dawn of Islam. Their backwardness and mutual wars created
hindrance in their way to learn the art of writing. But as has been mentioned
earlier, Banu Hameer of Yemen and Nabti of northern island of Arabia knew the
art of script for quite a long time.
However, a few Arabs who travelled through Iraq and Syria for
commercial purposes, learnt Hebrew and Syriac and used to write Arabic in
this form of Script only. Before the dawn of Islam,
pure Arabic mode of writing was introduced which was termed as 'al'jazm'. This mode of script was quite different
from masnad script and when the Qur`an was revealed it was written in
this script only. The Royal family of
Heera had good relations with the ruling family of domat-ul-Jandal in Nejd. A
member of this family by name Bashr bin Abdul Malik Kundi married the sister
of Sakhr bin Harab whose name was Taheeba bint-e-Harb-bin Umayya of the
Quraish tribe. Bashr bin Abdul Malik
pursued his studies in the art of script and thus a new art of Arabic script
derived from Satranjeli reached Makkah. This happened about 50 years before the revelation of the
Qur`an which commenced in the year 610 A.D.
Bashr bin Abdul Malik gave necessary coaching to Harb ibn Umayya and
his son Sufyan in reading and writing of the Anbari, Heeri or Kufi
script. Ameer Al-Muminin Umar
bin Khattab learnt the script from Harb bin Umayya and Ameer al Muminin
Mu'awiyah learnt from his uncle Sufyan.
In the pre-Islamic era
the Arabs were the borrowers from the more advanced Syrian Christians of the
north, but in the Islamic era the Syrian Christians had in turn become the
borrowers from the ruling Arabs. The
early pre-Islamic influence of the Syriac on the Arabic as a whole was
largely checked by the end of the 3rd century after the Hijrah: from then on
its influence was almost wholly limited to the Christian Arabic scripts. This script, was very likely the one
employed for manuscripts meant especially for Christian consumption. Frequently, however, Christian works were
meant for general consumption, for Muslim writers show a familiarity with
Christian books and literature.
Perhaps the turning point came when the Syrian Christians began to
use. Muslim scripts for works likely to be read by Muslims. The script used in Makkah
at the advent of Islam was a developed from of Syriac or Anbari script[1].
Earlier in Medina Hebrew script was in use. The Jews of Medina who knew
Arabic used to write Arabic in Hebrew script. After Migration the script of
Makkah was introduced in Medina. The Prophet himself introduced many
improvements therein. In one tradition Muawiyah reports: “Once when I
was taking a dictation from the Prophet,
the Prophet directed me to mark raqsh. I asked him what is raqsh?
He said wherever there is necessity put dots on letters (to avoid doubt
regarding similar letters such as ب ت
ث - س
ش etc)[2]”. However this method came
into common use rather late. In the copies of the Qur’an prepared during the
period of Ameer ul Muminin Uthman the dots have not been used.[3] The Iraqis were soon
going their own way in the writing of the Qur`an, even to the extent of
introducing new practices in vocalization, punctuation, and perhaps also
ornamentation. And they did in spite
of the fact that prominent Hijazis opposed all such innovations. With the rapid rise of
their city to fame their script was soon to rival the Makkan and take the
leadership in Qur`anic scripts, so much so that in later centuries the phrase
'Kufic script' became almost synonymous with 'Qur`anic Script'. As a result of this,
Muslims and non-Muslims, easterns and westerns, some even upto the present
day classed all specimens of early Qur`anic scripts, the Makkan included,
under the term 'Kufic'. In the beginning there
were no short vowel signs (accentuation marks) or marks for tanwin, (nunnation) and dots in Kufic
script, indicating accurate pronunciation[4]. This situation continued for about half a
century. Then around 50/671 one Abul
Aswad Duwaili introduced dots, punctuations and provided various marks to
direct correct pronunciation. When Egypt and Iran were
conquered by Muslims (in 19/640 and 21/642, respectively) the non-Arab
inhabitants of these places faced difficulty to read the Qur`an or Arabic
writing, because of certain Arabic letters which were identical in
appearance. In view of this
difficulty, Khalifah Abdul Malik bin Marwan (65/685 ‑ 86/705)
instructed Hajjaj bin Yousuf the then governor of Iraq in the year 65/685 to
reintroduce the reforms in the script.
Therefore Nasr bin Asim and Yahya bin Yamar introduced certain dots to
distinguish between various letters and required these dots to be written in
different colour of ink. Thus the
Arabic letters of identical appearance were distinguished by these dots. This method was followed for about 30 to
40 years. In the second/eighth
century one Abdur Rahman Khaleel bin Ahmed Urudhi (d. 175/791) gave new
shapes to these dots and punctuations after which the use of different ink
was discontinued. Thus these dots and
points were standardised which are prevalent even today. When we come to consider
the vowel signs, the Qur`an manuscripts credited to the first century show a
consistent vowel system in which a single red dot above, below or to the side
of a letter stood for the vowels a, i, and u respectively, and two such dots
indicated the tanwin. The texts of early Qur`ans, however, were
never completely voweled, the vowel sign for one or more of the letters of
given word being used only where it was essential for a correct reading. The
Arabic traditions place the introduction of the system early in the Muslim
era, to `Ali, Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali (d. 67/687). They tell how, having at first refused to introduce the system
at the request of Ziyad ibn Abihi, governor of Iraq (45/665 ‑ 53/673),
he finally did so when he heard the Qur`an being wrongly recited. The system could not have been widely
spread or generally used, for we find Hajjaj facing the same problem in Iraq
and ordering Nasr ibn Asim to safeguard the pronunciation of the Qur`an.
Nasr, introduced the double dots for the tanwin. Even this did not establish the general
use of system, for again we find Yahya bin Yamar given credit for it, which
credit is likewise shared by Hasan al‑Basri (d. 110/728).
Still these efforts and their results proved insufficient, for again
Khalil ibn Ahmad (96/715 ‑ 170/786) is credited with introducing the hamzah
and the shaddah, the raum and the ishmam, as he is also
credited with the vowel signs that are still in use for a,i, and u. The last were originally miniatures of the
letters alif, y and w respectively.
The basic purpose of
using dots on letters was to distinguish between identical letters, therefore
such of those letters indicated by dots were called 'dotted letters'.
Meanwhile minor changes and improvements were made in the script and several
methods of writing were created. For example tumar script was famous
for writing agreements, documents and other tablets, calligraphy was used for
the form of deebaj, madih, murassah, riyash etc.
The Kufi script formed the basis of all these scripts. However, there was no significant change
which could be called revolutionary.
Every script was based on
straight lines and circles. If the
stroke of pen was in a circular form, it was called circular. Ibn Muqallah determined for the first time
certain principles for calligraphy and fixed the measurement of letters so
that bold and small letters should have a uniformity. Naskh
script was exclusively used for writing the Qur`an while rehan and Kufic scripts
were used for writing the Qur`anic headings.
The naskh script became popular because of its simplicity and for the
reason that it was used for writing the Qur`an, The use of all other scripts
was discontinued in copying the Qur`anic text. The use of Kufi
script became less frequent. As the naskh script invented by ibn Muqallah
displaced all other scripts from the scene, serial order of alphabets
introduced by him also replaced the earlier orders. His arrangement of alphabet called 'Abtath' was as follows:
ا ب
ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز
س ش ص
ض ط
ظ ع خ ف ق ك ل م ن
و ه ء ى
For naskh script ibn Muqallah prescribed the measurement of the
circle as four wang and of the plain as two wang. Wang
was actually the measurement of length which was equal to the length of 1‑1/2
dot by the same pen. For example, if
the plain of Alif (ا) was two wang the length of alif with the same pen
would equal to the length of 4 1/2 dots.
Similarly, if the circle of (ى) was half wang the
circular curve of (ى) would be 3/4th dots.
After ibn Muqallah, ibn‑e‑Bawab
(412/1021) and Yakhut Mustasimi (698/1299) took naskh script to the
culmination of the art. The Prophet Muhammad (S)
selected scribes from among the respectable companions who knew the art of
writing for the purpose of writing the Qur`an. Ameer al Muminin Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman used to perform
this duty in Makkah[5]. After migration to
Medina, Zubair bin Awwam, Abi bin Ka'ab, Zaid bin Thabit, Ali bin Abu Talib,
Abdullah bin Arqham, Sharjeel bin Hasna, Abdullah bin Rawaha, Ameer
Mu'awiyah, Khalid bin Sayeed had the honour of scribing the Qur`an. In the Qur`an these scribes are referred
to as men to high degree in the following words: "It is set down on
honoured pages, purified and exalted, by
the hands of devout and gracious scribes" (Qur’an 80:13 to 16). In addition to the above
mentioned scribed, other companions, too, used to write the Qur`an for their
personal use. Mu’adh bin Jabal, Abul
Durda, Abu Ayyub Ansari, Ibada bin Samat etc. are worth mentioning.
Abdullah bin Masood and Abdullah bin Omer scribed the entire Qur`an
and kept them as their personal copies. It is not correct to say
that at first no special attention was paid to the writing materials. The early scribes used all such materials
as stones, wood, bark, leaves, silk rags, leather parchment, and papyrus as
were readily available. The Qur`an contains
several interesting references to writing materials. Papyrus (Kirtas) is mentioned in Surah
6:7 and 91; writing tablets (alwah) which may be either wooden or
stone slabs, in Surah 7:145, 150, 154; 54:13 and 85:22 parchment (raqq), in Surah 52:03 Written
portions, regardless of size or writing material, are referred to as suhuf, a term conveying the idea of
loose pages, leaflets, or even small pamphlets. The script of the Qur`an
is in a way different from the regular Arabic script and its speciality is
obvious from the manner in which the word 'Allah' is written. These words are written according to old nabti
script which is also found in the Mashaf‑e‑Uthmani. In the script 'Allah' middle letter Alif
(same as A) is written with long vowel fatha (as a in 'father'), then
'ha' (same as 'h) is joined with La'am (same as L) Same method
is used in Mashaf‑e‑Uthmani to write these words. Similarly, Waw (same as W) is
written in place of Alif (same as A) in some words, but is pronounced
as Alif, for example Salwat ‑‑‑ Zakwat, where
short Alif is marked on Waw (same as W) to indicate its
pronunciation. Similarly the names
Ibrahim, Ishaq and Ismail are written without using long vowel Alif (‘a’ as in father) but it is indicated
by a short Alif. This method
is against the accepted principles of Arabic script but is peculair for the
Qur`an. This peculiar script is known
as Aljazm. Presently, also the
Qur`an is written in the same form and method as it was written under the
guidance of the Prophet in the earlier copies of the Qur`an. However, minor
changes in script were made. Previously two dots were put at the end of every
ayah, but now a circle is provided instead. Similarly, in the beginning, dots or vowels were not used and
the recitation by the Ummah from generation to generation was
considered sufficient. When Ameer‑al‑Muminin
Uthman prepared six master copies of the Qur`an and sent to the head‑quarters
of the Islamic provinces, other copies were prepared on the basis of the six
authentic copies. Thus the publication of the Qur`an assumed the character of
continuity. Once Imam Malik was asked
whether the mode of script of the Qur`an could be changed or not, he replied
in the negative and said that the opinion of a large number of scholars is
that the script of the Qur`an without following the earlier mode of script is
not permitted. In their opinion,
where there is a possibility of different recitation, the mode of script
adopted by companions should be followed, for example, the word Malik
can be recited as Ma'alik with long vowel (as a in father) or it can
be recited "Malik" with short vowel Therefore writing the
Qur`an by changing its old mode is not correct. Those who hold that old mode of the Script as adopted by Ameer
al Muminin Uthman is not compulsory, include Zamkhashari (d. 539/1144)
ibn Khaldoun (d. 808/1404) and Omer
bin Abdus Salam. Similarly, a few scholars
hold that the script of the Qur`an should be in consonance with its
pronunciation. Qazi Abu Bakr
Baqillani (d. 403/1013) is one among
those scholars. He wrote in his book "Al‑Intesar"
that although Prophet Muhammad (S) followed the same method of script for
writing the Qur`an called al Jazm,
nevertheless he did not forbid writing it in other modes of script. Restricting the Ummah to follow only one mode is also not proved by ‘Ijma’ (consensus of opinion). Contradicting this view, Sheikh
Mohd.Najeeb opined in his treatise that the mode of script of the Qur`an is
in accordance with the guidance of Prophet.
Therefore it is binding and the companions have not brought any change
in it according to their opinion or ‘Ijtehad’ (Juristic exertion). If the writing of the Mashaf was allowed in the mode of
script other than one used in the master copies prepared by Ameer al
Muminin Uthman it was because of the fact that despite this being
different, it retained the essential characteristics of the Qur`anic
script. Here it is necessary to
explain that academic opinion of Zamakhshari ibn Khaldoun and other scholars
carries weight and their opinion is based on sincerity and honesty. During the period of these scholars no
doubt there existed a good number of enemies of Islam who indulged in
conspiracies against the Qur`an, but such mentality was not in a dominating
position. But now when the forces
against Islam are in power, it is incumbent to analyse this issue with
greater care and caution and it is better not to accept any change from the
mode of script used in the master copies prepared by Ameer al Muminin
Uthman. Apart from other valid
reasons, as a precaution against tempering also it is absolutely necessary to
retain the traditional script in tact.
Briefly speaking, the
Qur`anic script is binding and any change in it is not permissible, however,
minor modifications are allowed. The essential peculiarities of the Qur`anic
script have to be retained. The
Islamic Ummah has been following this even today and when the printing
was invented, the printing press in Egypt and India made arrangement for
printing the Qur`an in its own script by retaining its peculiarities. When offset system was
introduced in printing it became easier to photostat the old copy of the
Qur`an with all its originalities and thus inadvertently the possibilities of
any change in the Qur`anic script were reduced. When anti‑Muslim
organisations deliberately attempted to print the Qur`an by effecting changes
mischievously, Islamic countries took special precautions and made arrangements
for correct and careful printing of the Qur`an. Hence the Research and Registration Officer of the Department
of Awqaf in Pakistan made it compulsory to print the Qur`an, only after
obtaining a certificate from the Department which is granted after reciting
and comparing word by word. The mode of script
determined at the time of compilation of the Qur`an and which was adopted by
Zaid bin Thabit is termed as 'al Istilah ul‑salfi' meaning
thereby "a term determined by pious predecessors". Abu Amr Uthman bin Sayeed‑ud‑dani
(d. 444/1052) wrote two books on the principles of script called ‘Al Iqtesad‑fi‑Rasmul Mas'haf’
and the other ‘al-Muqhna fi Rasmul
Mas'haf’. Sheikh Mohammed Qasim bin Ferah Shatebi (d. 590/1194) depicted
these books in his poem called "Al‑Aqhlia‑ul-Rayiah".
The last letter of every couplet is Ra (as in R). After this some
differences emerged with regard to the mode of script which is depicted in a
poem by Kharaz one of the later scholars who recorded this in his popular
poem "Al Muqna" with greater detail. In order to recite the
Qur`an correctly, in addition to the a'arab
(vowel signs) some more indications regarding pause are given which are
called awqaf. Eminent scholars
including Sajawandi and Shatabi Andalusi (d.
590/1194) among others have contributed valuable literature on this
aspect. The indication as suggested
by Sajawandi are followed in the Indian sub‑continent whereas the
indications as suggested by Shatabi Andalusi are followed in Saudi Arab.
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